Children learn to sing before they speak. An infant’s communication is a series of coos that communicate hunger, fatigue, alarm or pleasure. Further, a child’s mother can discern the child’s need based on pitch.
According to Krashen´s hypothesis, the affective filter, the monitor model and natural input are the components of his theory about music and language learning.
The affective filter hypothesis states that optimum learning occurs in an environment of high stimulation and low anxiety. According to the theory, the emotional state of the learner acts as a filter, which may pass or impede input needed for acquisition.
Another aspect of Krashen’s theory is the monitor model. In describing this model, he claimed that adult second language learners have two means for internalizing the target language.

The first is acquisition, an intuitive process of constructing the system of language. The second is a conscious process in which students pay close attention to form, rules and are clearly aware of the learning process. During acquisition, the input language students receive should be exposed to their own level of competency or just a bit more of the next level.
A third aspect of Krashen’s theory is defined as natural input. Given that each side of the brain represents different styles of learning, natural input is achieved differently by each individual learner. There are a few general conclusions about the functions of left and right brain learning that can be used to help relate to music.
Right brain people respond well to illustrated instructions and rely heavily on images in thinking or remembering. The left brain dominant individual is defined as being more verbally oriented and objective. They rely on language in thinking and tend to be analytical in their reading. Music uses both brain hemispheres. Emotion and language are one in a song, when coupled with a visual image, music can become a very powerful learning TOOL.
Similarly, speech therapists have been using music to help patients recover from strokes or accidents that effect their ability to speak. Speech without music leads to language without heart.
In conclusion, there is strong evidence supporting the use of music in the ESL classroom. Language and music are tied together in brain processing by pitch, rhythm and by symmetrical phrasing. Music can help familiarize students with connections and provides a fun way to acquire English.

By Bob Lake Reading Teacher for Savannah Technical College.

(Essay)

There are numerous evidences that reflect the importance of studying the human brain´s processes and its influence and relationship with learning experiences. Therefore, it is necessary to consider factors and conditions that affect the brain, and in consequence, the integral development of human beings, where Diamond (2003) says, these facts are not only taken in account during childhood or adulthood, but also in the prenatal and postnatal stages of human development.
Added to this, the author points out an example set back in 1237, during the Ming Dynasty, in which pregnant women were asked, according to Diamond (2003): “…sit and walk dignified and sedately; maintain a good temper and with a mind at ease; do not look at evil happenings and ugly pictures”, it means, that the attitude and behavior of pregnant mothers is fundamental to guarantee the healthy growth of their future baby. This implies a social, mental, physical and emotional balanced state.
It is good to point out that what was before mentioned is one of the important factors in the good functioning of the brain and its response to the learning experiences. However, enriched environment also contribute to meaningful learning and optimum development of multiple intelligence in individuals.
For this reason, these statements lead parents and teachers to seek different strategies that, according to Diamond (2003): “… help a child to develop his or her full potential and set a pathway of lifelong learning.” (p.5). So that, it allows them to grant their children and/or students more creative, dynamic, participative, reflective, motivate and safer spaces and environments, that stimulate them and motivate them in a continuous learning, developing their different skills and abilities.

Likewise, other aspects considered by Diamond (2003) for a healthy and enriched environment are: a) Granting quality time, in which they can express feelings and emotions such as support, love, respect, solidarity, companionship, forgiveness and care, which will enhance and strengthen the self confidence and self assurance of the students. b) A healthy nourishment that includes enough vitamins, proteins, minerals and calories that favors positively the growth of brain cells, that will allow the child to answer to daily experiences in an assertive way. c) Considering the opportunities and strategies that allow the stimulation of senses, not necessarily all at the same time; however, through multisensory experiences there is the opportunity to stimulate them. d) Offering an environment of harmony, pleasure and freedom that allows dissipating the levels of pressure and stress. e) Promoting the social interaction through meaningful activities that encourage the exchange of ideas, opinions, differences, thoughts, games and adequate physical contact, which enrich interpersonal relationships and individual knowledge. f) Encouraging the performance of each student through their mental, social, physical, aesthetic and emotional abilities and skills. g) Each child has their own interests and preferences in learning; therefore it is good to facilitate opportunities in which he/she can choose to do what they wish to do. h) Giving the children chance to evaluate their final results in a determinate task, and allowing them to start all over again. i) Providing children with fun and enjoyable atmosphere with exploring activities that allow them to learn in an active role and have fun at the same time.
On the other hand, Diamond (2003) also point out the consequences of unhealthy and stressful environments. These environments present the children and/or students with negative climate in which they are under stress or deprived of sensory activities; also, they are isolated from classmates or peers which they can learn from. Their diet is poor and they are presented with non fun, unchanging and old activities, often secluding them into a passive non-participant position with a low selection of subjects and options.
It is important to mention that even the most simple of instruments and materials can become excellent tools for creativity stimulation and multisensory experiences. These materials can go from carton boxes to tape recorders, which children combine with their imagination (make believe). Although this method is good for brain development, children must not be over-stimulated or else their learning processes won´t we meaningful, since they will find themselves in an environment full of pressure and their brains don’t have enough time to store information connectly and make good use of it in later occasions.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
- Diamond, M (2003) What are the determinants of Children´s Academic Successes and Difficulties? University of California, US

(Report)

As English teaching evolves these days, so do English teachers. Books and literature have always made an important appearance in the learning of a new language, but sometimes fail to show important aspects of culture and real life of the English speaking communities. The two articles give importance to the fact that English students have ceased being simple receptors of written words. Stern proposes film as a very effective technique to incentivate students in their writing, because not only does the film tell a story but represents the lifestyle, customs and idioms in a way that students can identify themselves with the characters and students start their own writing without being asked to. Lee Zoreda focuses on the cultural background of the English language, since language is a very distinctive part of any culture and history of a foreign country; intercultural movies can show what views of Americans other countries have and vice versa.
Just as it was shown in the film Borat, a man from Kazakhstan, who works as a journalist, is sent to America to learn about their culture. The film focuses on Borat´s experiences through his journey; he starts doing things that are normal in his homeland but are very upsetting to Americans (such as kissing men on the cheek and making anti-semitic remarks), and he is shocked by the fact that women can vote and have other rights. He falls in love with Pamela Anderson and goes to California to search for her. This illusion makes him lose his goal and he gets in a lot of trouble. Finally, after realizing that he will never be with Pamela, he goes back to his country and marries an American prostitute.
In the same way, the two articles give examples of films that are appropriate for English students, first because the characters speak in the target language (English), and second because it shows the so called “cultural shock” that often happens between the Americans and any other foreign character (i.e Borat). The second article, written by Lee Zoreda, shows how ignorant most Americans are to other country cultures, thinking, for example that Spaniards and Mexicans are the same because they speak the same language, or that all Indian people come from the same place, and reflecting it in their films. For Borat, going to the United States was a great opportunity to know the culture, traditions and way of life of Americans; but his lack of knowledge and consulting caused his experience to be everything except enriching. He considered that his traditions and life style could (and should) be adopted by Americans. Things that the film shows are that sometimes some countries don’t like people from certain countries, and foreign people need to take that in account to prevent bad experiences from happening. In the same way, when people travel to other countries, they share an intercultural experience and they must embrace the life style of said countries, but without losing their own national and cultural identity.
Finally, it can be said that films depict important aspects of human life, not only because of the language, but of the daily lives of the people they want to show and their stories. Students forget that the characters are actors reading a guideline, and instead believe that these are real life scenarios with real people. This way, they reflect about their own lives, cultures and even personal traditions and feel free to write their ideas down, relating their own experiences and comparing them to the ones the characters displayed in the film.
However, it is considered that some scenes in the film Borat are not appropriate for all audiences; and besides that, it shows an exaggeration of cultural depictions of the country of Kazakhstan. Some scenes in the film are so inappropriate that they become disgusting and degrading to women’s rights, Jewish religion and Romani people (gypsies); although some scenes were inappropriate, the humor added to them made them more bearable (but to others, black humor makes films more awkward, nasty and unpleasant), showing us that even matters as serious as religion or politics can be subject of entertainment.


Bibliographic References
1.Lee, M. (2006) Intercultural Moments in Teaching English Through Film.
Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Iztapalapa. México.
2.Stern, A. (s/f) Using Films in Teaching English Composition. English
Department , Montcalir High School. New Jersey.
3.Cohen, S. (2006) Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit
Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan. 20 th Century Fox. United States of America.

Essay
Education has been subjected to studies throughout years due to its vital importance and influence over people’s formation, and also in societies’ development. For that reason, for the last 20 years, some scientists have suggested the possible relation about a Brain- Based Education. In other words, Jensen (2008) says: “… the brain is intimately involved in and connected with everything educators and students do at school.” (p.1). It means that teaching and learning process are affected by brain function. It is the reason why many different scientists have been working so hard to look for more evidences about it.
Nevertheless, as any study, the Brain- Based Education has had its critics, according to Jensen (2008), Bruer and others critics say that many educators consider it was very difficult to understand how our brain works, because they were not capable of understanding it. In addition to that, neuroscience has nothing to offer and they should ignore the brain research and continue their path. It shows that they simply belong to another scientific academy and are not open to recognize and accept other new theories and paradigms, which could be improve and enhance the quality of education.
On the other hand, despite this, Jensen (2008), says: “…brain-based education has withstood the test of time, and an accumulating body of empirical and experiential evidence confirms the validity of the new model.” (p. 1). In the same order of ideas, advocators such as Jensen and others have focused their studies and researches about the connection existing between brain function and educational practice, but which should be buttressed by other disciplines such as neuroscience, psychology, sociology, psychiatry, nutrition, cognitive and others. All this implicates the broader scope of brain-based education like a multidisciplinary knowledge which should be used and taken advantage of by the educators.
In fact, it´s very important that each educator knows that brain-based education means “everything we do uses our brain” because the brain is involved in and connected with everything teachers and students do at school. Then, if the teacher ignores how the student brain works, he or she will risk student success. Therefore, according to Jensen (2008): “Brain-based education is best understood in three words: engagement, strategies and principles… is the "engagement of strategies based on principles derived from an understanding of the brain." (p. 1) In other words, teacher should know why they do what they do; they should have an answer as to why one strategy is used instead of another; because different scientists could help educators to know more about the brain and its implication and applications; but they couldn´t teach educators which classroom strategies work best for their students. It should be observed, analyzed, practiced and evaluated by teachers who are always interacting with their students and have the opportunity to see their behaviors.
The author says that schools present countless opportunities to affect students´ brains; and such issues exercise, nutrition, stress, social conditions and environments are all relevant because all of them affect cognition, attention, discipline, classroom, attendance, and memory. Also, teachers should know and consider that the human brain can and does grow new neurons (neurogenesis); and that new neurons are highly correlated with memory, mood, and learning, and which can be regulated by everyday behaviors. Specifically, it can be enhanced by exercise, lower levels of stress, and good nutrition.
Consequently, educators have a wider array of topics to consider during teaching and learning process, which can be buttressed in the brain-based education, and where teachers can make choices in how they prioritize policies and strategies.
Meanwhile, some researchers claim that physical activity helps the brain developing itself in a positive way; through the process of neurogenesis (production of new brain cells), this process, according to Shors et al (2001) “… is correlated with improved learning and memory.” This means that students may develop new skills by the means of exercise, which can also help against depression because of the production of endorphins. These techniques are very suitable, especially for teenagers, who seem to be more prone to depression.
Another problem related with brain-based education is that any new theory that comes out is immediately met with denial and opposition (Kuhn, 1970). Many great theories are discarded because many scholars will just settle with old techniques and paradigms instead of being creative and spending resources in new theories. Scholars need to learn that no theory is 100 % accurate nor will it solve all our problems, and that sometimes it is good to stand out for their ideas instead of just being part of the group.
Added to this, is the fact that brain-based education is merely a new area with little research fields. But nowadays there are more open-minded researchers and teachers who will allow brain-based education in the classrooms. There are special journals and scientific magazines dedicated to this new area of research.
In conclusion, although brain-based research and education is a very innovative strategy, it must be remembered that it will not solve all the problems related to learning problems. Just as Jensen (2007) expresses: “Brain-based education is not a panacea or magic bullet to solve all of education´s problems. Anyone who claims that is misleading people”. It may be still new, but as all new things it will be accepted sooner or later by critics and opponents; it just takes time to be completely understood and accepted.
The current model of brain-based education is highly interdisciplinary; and scientists know that today brain-based education cannot be founded on neuroscience; they have learned that it requires a multidisciplinary approach.


BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
•Jensen, E (2008) A Fresh Look at Brain Based Education. Phi Delta Kappan, v89 n6 p408-417. Phi Delta Kappa International. California, USA.

"PPP" (or the "3Ps") stands for Presentation, Practice and Production, it´s a common approach to communicative language teaching that works through the progression of three sequential stages.
Presentation stage: The teacher begins the lesson by setting up a situation, either eliciting or modeling some language that the situation calls for. Presentation may consist of model sentences, short dialogues illustrating target items, either read from the textbook, heard on the tape or acted out by the teacher.
Practice stage: Students practice the new language in a controlled way. They drill sentences or dialogues by repeating after the teacher or the tape, in chorus and individually, until they can say them correctly. Other practice activities are matching parts of sentences, completing sentences or dialogues and asking and answering questions using the target language.
Production stage: Students are encouraged to use the new language in a freer way either for their own purposes or meanings or in a similar context introduced by the teacher. It can be a role play, a simulation activity or a communication task.

In Anglo-Saxon literature on the ascendent up method, has begun to use other nomenclature, ascendent methods that call botton up and descending methods, top down, too, of course, talk about mixed methods.
The bottom-up methods, focus on the elementary units of which goes up to more complex units. They are the letters, phonemes, syllables, and combine to more complex units such as words, sentences and texts. Depending on the initial unit, the methods are alphabetical, in which the most important unit is the script (the name of the letter), the phonetic attach importance to the phoneme and the syllable to syllable.
The types of activities would be bottom-up approach spellings discrimination, fragmented words, the association of syllables in drawing and gestures association with the sound, among others.

Learning Strategy training
Students of foreign language are being encouraged to learn and use a broad range of language learning strategies that can be tapped throughout the learning process. This approach is based on the belief that learning will be facilitated by making students aware of the range of strategies from which they can choose during language learning and use. The most efficient way to heighten learner awareness is to provide strategy training (explicit instruction in how to apply language learning strategies) as part of the foreign language curriculum. This digest discusses the goals of strategy training, highlights approaches to such training, and lists steps for designing strategy training programs.
Strategies can be categorized as either language learning or language use strategies. Language learning strategies are conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and understanding of a target language. They include cognitive strategies for memorizing and manipulating target language structures, metacognitive strategies for managing and supervising strategy use, affective strategies for gauging emotional reactions to learning and for lowering anxieties, and social strategies for enhancing learning, such as cooperating with other learners and seeking to interact with native speakers.

Cooperative learning

It is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it.
Cooperative efforts result in participants striving for mutual benefit so that all group members. This strategy promote student learning and academic achievement, increase student retention, enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience, help students develop skills in oral communication, develop students' social skills, promote student self-esteem, and help to promote positive race relation.
The elements of Cooperative Learning are: positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual and group accountability, interpersonal small-group skills, and group processing. As well, activities that could be used during cooperative learning are: Jigsaw, think-pair-share, three-step interview, round robin brainstorming, three-minute review numbered heads, together team pair solo, circle the sage, and partners.

Multiple intelligences (H. Gardner)

The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees. Gardnerproposes seven primary forms: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (e.g., insight, metacognition) and interpersonal (e.g., social skills).
According to Gardner, the implication of the theory is that learning/teaching should focus on the particular intelligences of each person. For example, if an individual has strong spatial or musical intelligences, they should be encouraged to develop these abilities. Gardner points out that the different intelligences represent not only different content domains but also learning modalities. A further implication of the theory is that assessment of abilities should measure all forms of intelligence, not just linguistic and logical-mathematical.
Gardner also emphasizes the cultural context of multiple intelligences. Each culture tends to emphasize particular intelligences. For example, Gardner (1983) discusses the high spatial abilities of the Puluwat people of the Caroline Islands, who use these skills to navigate their canoes in the ocean. Gardner also discusses the balance of personal intelligences required in Japanese society.

The main idea behind these approaches is to teach English through communication rather than for it. Important principles are: students know that language learning is a means to an end and not an end in itself, learning authentic subject matter, using language not only orally but also to read and write about interesting and relevant content. The teacher makes use of themes and topics that appear in students' discussions which in turn forms the 'syllabus.'

It is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language.
This method is learner-centered and emphasizes real-life situations and communication in context. The characteristics of the teaching and learning process are: almost everything that is done is done with a communicative intentional purpose. Students use in the language a great deal through communicative activities such as games, role plays, interviews, pair work, problem - solving tasks, and so on. Activities that are truly communicative have three features in common: Information gap, choice, and feedback. In conclusion, true communication is purposeful; and the feelings of the students can be motivated and useful.

It is a language learning method based on the coordination of speech and action. It was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California. It is linked to the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be. Some objectives of this method are: teaching oral proficiency at a beginning level, using comprehension as a means to speaking, using action-based drills in the imperative form, that are reached with the response of physical movements made by the students to a specific comand, like the game Simon says, where the teacher say something to do and the students should response it.

Communicative Language Learning (CLL) is an approach in which students work together to develop those aspects of a language that they would like to learn. Teacher´s rol is as a counsellor and facilitator, while learner´s rol is as a collaborator and user of the language. In addition, this method proposes activities which involve real communication and language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks that promote learning.
In this sense, students will learn to use language as a means of expression, communication, culture and others. Communicative language learning seeks to bring students beyond grammatical competence to a point where they are able not only to decode a language, but also, can begin to manipulate the language according to their own needs. This is known as communicative competence.
Several strategies further communicative language learning, including private dialog, an immersion environment, and instructional songs. Also, conversation partners, role play, and others.

Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of how the human brain works and how students learn most effectively. Some factors that are necessary in this method are based on the sensory learning environment, for this, the teacher needs to create a good and motivating environment with pictures, colours, music and so on.
One of the most used strategies by the teacher in this method are songs, games, role play, music, which require the active participation of the students. Also, this method should be develop through four steps or phases, the first one is the presentation, where the teacher will give a short and simple view of the topic that will help the students to feel relax and to know that the learning will be easy and fun. The second one, is the first concert, it involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt; the third, is the second concert where the students are invited to relax and to listen some kind of soft music which will give the students an optimum mental for the state effortless acquisition of the material. And the last one is the practice, which is based on the use of a range of games, puzzles, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.

This method is an alternative for foreign language teaching that provides competence in oral and written speech, and where the students are the principal actors of their learning processes. The role of the teacher is to be as silent as possible during a class as facilitator or stimulator, with the aim of allows increasing speaking ability in the foreign language in his students. To can develop this method exist three basic principals: first the learner needs to discover or create, second learning is made easier by the use of physical objects, and third learning is made easier by problem-solving using the target language.
Language learning is usually seen as a problem solving activity to be engaged in by the students both independently and as a group, in this method the teacher needs to stay out of the way in the process as much as possible.

This method was employed by the U.S. army some years ago, due to the necessity of have soldiers who can communicate fluently in different languages and could work as an interpeters or translators of other troops.
It is based on the advising students and teaching them a language directly, without using their native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language, such as the direct method, however, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary but in the use of grammar. Audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction, everything is simply memorized in form, the idea is that students can practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. For this, lessons are built and planned based on differents drills like inflection, repetition, replacement and restatement.

The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the Grammar-Translation method. It is a method that refrains from using the learners' native language and just uses the target language also operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language. One of the principal characteristics, of this method is to make great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. As well, all teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught inductively, and there is a focus on speaking and listening through vocabulary given by the teacher and the answers by students. Add the use of disconnected sentences is replaced by the use of connected texts. The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different.

The grammar translation method is sometimes called traditional. It is a foreign language teaching method which requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. So, very little attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language. The skill exercised are reading and writing, and then only in the context of translation. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics. However, the structures of the foreign languages are best learned when compared and contrast with those of mother tongue.
Some people consider this method as unnatural method, because, the natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way how the child learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings. But in the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses problems.